Images play a critical role in how we come to grips with the world around us. Phrases such as, "seeing is believing" and " a picture is worth a thousand words" abound in our language, and underscore not just the importance of the image, but the associations with language as well (Peterson, 1997; Sutton, 1992; Woodward, 1989). Images are considering critical in students' understanding of scientific and technological concepts as well, as is shown by the emphasis (or lack thereof) on how text illustrations are constructed and portrayed (Mayer & Gallini, 1990). Images have shown their value as assessment tools in communicating students' learning (Peterson, 1997) and conceptual change (Koballa & Pyle, 1996) but are not well understood in the role they play at the "front end" of the learning process, in augmenting instruction. In addition, the heavy reliance on language-based forms of assessment make it difficult to determine the level of students' understanding of science concepts if they have not mastered the language used to represent the concepts (Sutton, 1992). Is a student's level of scientific literacy determined by their fluency in the language of science, or in the capacity to have such concepts influence decisions, thoughts, and feelings? This study has a dual purpose. First, it is designed to determine the effects of visually-enhanced hands-on student instruction as compared with non-visually enhanced hands on instruction. Second, it is designed to test the feasibility of using simple concept-map like structures as a means of determining student conceptual growth in a non-language dependent manner.

    Paivio (1971) describes learning and cognition in terms of a dual coding theory, in which verbal and image-based information are coded and learned by separate, interrelated processes. Verbal information is viewed as generally more abstract and relies on shared (or negotiated) meanings for particular terms. In contrast, image-based information is based on concrete representations of objects but is coded in idiosyncratic ways. As a result, verbal systems are often learned and expresses in an associative manner, while imagery is learned and expressed by more referential means. For example, verbal analogies rely on shared meanings of the components of both the analog and the target (Glynn, 1994). The strength of the association between elements within the analog relative to the target determines the strength and appropriateness of the analogy. As terms become less associative, the utility of the analogy is diminished and can lead to student misconceptions (Glynn, 1994). Presumably, the diminishment of the associative capacity of verbal analogies are observed in the absence of concrete representations of the terms in question.

    By comparison, imagery requires concrete referential representations in order to be both learned and expressed. For example, the progress of the Earth about the Sun over the course of a year is difficult to express verbally except by such arbitrary concepts as calendar months. To grasp the concept of annual revolution, students must see a concrete image, such as a drawing or physical model. The image becomes a stable element in a learners mind and is referred to in future learning experiences. If not grasped in totality or complexity, the images themselves can also be the source of misconceptions (Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 1992).

   Verbal and image systems are interrelated, especially at concrete levels (Paivio, Clark, & Lambert, 1988). One can discuss atomic models in a class through verbal discussions or via images. Words can be used to describe nuclei, electron shells and configurations, all of which can be directly related to drawings, computer graphics, or physical models of atoms. Both verbal and image aspects of concepts reinforce each other, in each lie the seeds of misconception (an analogy?). As concepts become more complex and abstract, it is difficult to develop representative images. For example, fear and pain have concrete referents such as physical feelings, facial expressions, or injury (Koballa & Pyle, 1996). It is difficult to express as an image such as relief, love, joy, etc., without resorting to fairly abstract concepts (Paivio, 1971).

    The significance of verbal and image relationships is particularly important in that verbal reports alone can be suspect. Nisbett and Wilson (1977) and Ross (1989) assert that a reliance on verbal reports of cognition alone are suspect, as associations made in one context can be colored or altered by associations made in another context. Ajzen & Fishbein (1980) suggest that verbal based reports of affect (i.e. attitude) are weaker without including indications of the strength of the affect. Without a common understanding of terms relative to strength or intensity of attitudes, the inferences that can be drawn from verbal reports alone are limited.

   The image and the word deeply affect one another in terms of student learning (Sutton, 1992), but in ways that have, to date, received limited description with respect to science. As many "scientific" concepts (Vygotsky, 1986/1962) are somewhat abstract and divorced from concrete "everyday" meanings (at least within the traditional science instructional approach), it is important to develop the means for students to merge the "scientific" concepts that they have read or heard with the "everyday" concepts that they see (Howe, 1996).

    In terms of determining student conceptual growth, verbal or word reports alone are incomplete or suspect in their utility. Concept maps are frequently discussed as avenues to determine student conceptual development and achievement (ex. Jegede, Alaiyemola, & Okebukola, 1990; Markham, Mintzes, & Jones, 1994; Novak, 1972), but they suffer in terms of utility to teachers in everyday grading as well as in the consistency of scoring rubric development and application. Hierarchical memory theory, however, suggests maps should be hierarchical with concepts at the apex, while an associationist theory suggests the meaning of a concept is determined by a list of its properties or its relation to other concepts (Shavelson, Lang, & Lewin, 1994). Ausubel, Novak, and Hamesian (1978) also discussed that a "test" must be at the comprehension level and beyond to ascertain that a learner shows meaningful learning. Synthesizing these ideas methodologically and conceptually there is no need to impose a hierarchical structure (Ruiz-Primo & Shavelson, 1996). What is necessary in determining conceptual growth is some determination of the pathways from familiar ideas scientific ideas (Komorek & Duit, 1996).

    A middle ground between verbal reports and full-blown concept maps is found in the so-called "burr diagram". Burr diagrams (the name itself evocative of certain images) represent single concept-terms at the center, while one or two-word related concept-terms are connected to the central term (Schaefer, 1979; Sutton, 1980, 1992), much in the same manner as burr seed-pods cling to clothing after a walk through tall grass or a forest. As Sutton (1992) points out, though, burr diagrams are affected by changes in core meaning of the central concept which limits their use in describing concepts systematically. They can, however, be useful to teachers in measuring learning as determined by conceptual growth and change. By using simplified concept maps in a context that provides a visual tie-ins, it is possible to probe the strength of both the associational (verbal) and referential (image) aspects of dual-coding and the effects on students' conceptual growth and learning.

Purpose of the Study

    This study was developed in order to show both a close association in verbal-image relationships in student learning, as well as exploring a novel means of determining such student learning via conceptual change and/or growth. To that end, two separate but related questions
were investigated:

1. What is the effect of an image-rich hands-on instructional environment on student
concept development and achievement as compared to a hands-on instructional
environment without visual enhancement?
2. What is the utility of simple concept maps (e.g. burr diagrams) as valid and reliable
indicators of student concept development in different instructional settings?

Design

    This study employed two quasi-experiments, in which two classes of 6th graders at a suburban elementary school in north-central West Virginia were selected to participate. Both classes in each experiment had the same mathematics and science teacher, who in keeping with the state-mandated curriculum, the West Virginia Instructional Goals & Objectives (WVIGOs) employed teaching methodologies that ensured that every student received at least 50% of instructional time in hands-on or investigative activities. Discrete units of science content were selected as the foci of instruction, both of which offered multiple opportunities for image-rich visual materials. One class, the experimental group, had their learning experiences augmented by multiple sources of imagery through posters, books, videodiscs, CD-ROMs, and videotapes. Each source of visual imagery was offered as a part of class discussion or in small group activities. The control group received identical instruction through activities and discussions without visual augmentation.

    Teacher beliefs in the two experiments was not specifically controlled for, but as both teachers were Science Mentor Teachers (SMTs) for the West Virginia science curriculum reform project and had received advanced training at the same time, an assumption is made that both teachers shared similar beliefs with respect to science content, instructional strategies, and the nature of the learners. Furthermore, as both teachers had received their certification from the same institution, their outlook on teacher preparation could at least be considered similar.

    Several other considerations are important to define with respect to this project. First of all, the visuals that were used with the students in the treatment groups were commonly available instructional materials from such sources as NASA, the Weather Channel, National Geographic, etc. These materials are more fully described in the tables associated with each experiment (Tables 2b and 4b). Second, the materials were deliberately selected and made an active part of the instructional process. While the same activities and dialogues were present in the control group classrooms that were in the treatment group classrooms, the visuals were not used in the control group classrooms. Finally, while overt instructional connections were made to the visual materials, no such connections to the visual materials were made during either the pre-test or post-test measurements.

Analysis

    To assess learners' conceptual growth in the study, an alternative assessment was needed that would provide evidence about what students know and can do in a subject matter (Primo & Shavelson, 1996) without confining and restricting them to the traditional multiple choice test. Concept mapping was considered as a viable possibility, but a reliable scoring rubric proved to be somewhat problematic. Both groups were assessed for their conceptual knowledge by using pre- and post-tests, represented by burr diagrams (Sutton, 1992). Each class (control and treatment) was given a list of concept terms, selected for their relevance to the intended instructional unit and the relevant IGOs. Students were required to produce, both before and after the unit instruction, burr diagrams for each of the terms. Students were then asked to "hook" to the given concept word as many single concept words as they could think of. The score for each student was generated by counting the number of non-repeating concept words hooked to the central concept on two bases: (a) relevance to the concept term, and (b) accuracy with respect to the concept term. Student pretest and post-test scores were compared to generate gain scores. Changes in student conceptual development were identified by gain score calculation between the pre-and post-tests for each student, then combined into class means. As there were only two levels of treatment data were then analyzed using an independent samples t-test to determine difference between the two groups.

Experiment 1

    Experiment 1 was conducted by one of the researchers in the late spring of 1997, with two classes, one randomly selected as the treatment group and the other the control group. The students consisted of 37 normally achieving and 5 with mild disabilities aged 11-13 years, divided roughly equally, as assigned by the school. Both classes received instruction on meteorology, making use of the same activities and discussions.
Prior to instruction, students in both groups generated burr diagrams for terms relevant to meteorology. The eight concept terms used in this Experiment 1 are found in Table 1. The items selected for the burr diagrams have face validity in that they represent meteorologic concepts and content validity in that they are referenced to the relevant WVIGOs. Both classes responses were scored by the classroom teacher.

Table 1.
Concept terms and WVIGO references for Experiment 1

   The instruction that each group received is summarized in Tables 2a and 2b. The control group received instruction with meteorologic activities, discussion, and text materials. The treatment group instruction was identical to the control group with the addition of pertinent sources of visual information. Upon completion of the unit, both groups were asked to complete burr diagrams on the same concept terms and the gain scores were calculated.

Table 2a
Experiment 1 Control Group Instruction

Lesson Topic: Water Cycle Text: Chapter 4, "Water in the Atmosphere" in Weather in the Classroom book by Weather Channel Activity: The Incredible Journey from Project WET-students become simulated raindrops that must travel to various places such as a pond, a cloud, or to the ground.  Activity: Water Cycle Bracelets-students make bracelets using different colored beads. Each Color represents a different part of the cycle. For example, green represents transpiration. In plants, blue represents precipitation, and white represents evaporation.

Lesson Topic: Clouds Text: Chapter 5, "Clouds" in Weather in the Classroom Activity: Making Clouds or Cloud in a Bottle‹students use a two-liter bottle, water , a match, and a cap to create a "cloud" in the classroom.

Lesson Topic: Precipitation Text: Chapter 6, "Precipitation" in Weather in the Classroom book by the Weather Channel

Lesson Topic: Hurricanes Text: Chapter 12, "The Temperamental Tropics" in Weather in the Classroom by the Weather Channel Activity: Track of Hurricane Diana by Project Atmosphere

Lesson Topic: Tornadoes Text: Chapter 11. "The Unstable Atmosphere" in Weather in the Classroom by the Weather Channel Activity: Tracking the Andover Twister from Project Atmosphere

Lesson Topic: Relative Humidity Text: Silver-Burdett, Weather Instruments chapter, grade 6 edition Activity: Making a Wet/Dry Bulb---students make a homemade instrument that helps in measurement of relative humidity

Lesson Topic: Fronts/Air Pressure Text: Chapter 10, "Fronts and Pressure Systems" in Weather in the Classroom by Weather Channel Activity: Highs/Lows from Project Atmosphere

Table 2b
Experiment 1 Treatment Group Instruction

Experiment 2

   Experiment 2 was conducted by a colleague of one of the researchers in the winter of 1997-98, with two classes, one randomly selected as the treatment group and the other the control group. The students consisted of 57 high achieving students aged 11-13 years in one class of 29, the other of 28. Both classes received instruction on astronomy, making use of the same activities and discussions. Prior to instruction, students in both groups generated burr diagrams for terms relevant to astronomy. The eight concept terms used in this Experiment 2 are found in Table 3.

Table 3.
Concept terms and WVIGO references for Experiment 2

   The items selected for the burr diagrams have face validity in that they represent astronomical concepts and content validity in that they are referenced to the relevant WVIGOs. Both classes responses were scored by the university-based researcher and another science educator at the same institution that was unconnected with the research such that interrater reliability might be established.

   The instruction that each group received is summarized in Tables 4a and 4b. In a similar fashion to Experiment 1, the control group received instruction with astronomical activities, discussion, and text materials. The treatment group instruction was identical to the control group with the addition of pertinent sources of visual information. Upon completion of the unit, both groups were asked to complete burr diagrams on the same concept terms and the gain scores were again calculated.

Table 4a
Experiment 2 Control Group Instruction

Table 4b
Experiment 2 Treatment Group Instruction
 

Lesson Topic: Spectrometer Text: Scott Foresman 6th grade science, A25-A28. Activity: spectroscopy-used diffraction grating to study the visible portion  of the electromagnetic spectrum. Used red and green filters to  study how the color we view is affected by blocking certain  wavelengths. Visual: CD-ROM - Eyewitness Encyclopedia of Space and Universe Poster - Electromagnetic Spectrum Diagram (NASA Project Astro)

Lesson Topic: Mirrors Text: Scott Foresman 6th grade science, A25-A28. Activity: mirrors-used plane mirrors to study reflection by using two then  three plane mirrors together to study reflected images. Also used  concave and convex mirrors to view objects at different distances. Students were then asked to develop ray diagrams. Visual: Video - Astronomy 101 (Mazon Products, Inc.) Poster - Types of Wavelengths and Objects of Relative Size

Lesson Topic: Lenses Text: Scott Foresman 6th grade science, A25-A28. Activity: students projected light through plane glass, water, and other  transparent objects. Students then viewed objects with double  convex and concave lenses. Students were then asked to develop  ray diagrams. Visual: Video - Astronomy 101 (Mazon Products, Inc.) Poster - Types of Wavelengths and Objects of Relative Size (NASA  Project Astro)

Lesson Topic: Color Spectrum/Star Life Cycle Text: Scott Foresman 6th grade science, A8-A11. Activity: Chromatography using coffee filters, colored markers, and water  and alcohol Activity: Students spun color wheel to demonstrate colors of light blending  to form white light. Visual: Video - Death of a Star (WGBH-NOVA)

Lesson Topic: Electromagnetic Spectrum/Light Waves Text: Scott Foresman 6th grade science, A40-A45. Activity: Students used slinky to illustrate wavelength, amplitude, crest,  trough, frequency. Visual: Video - Countdown to the Invisible Universe (WGBH-NOVA); The  Universe (Holiday Video, Ltd.) Poster - Electromagnetic Spectrum Diagram (NASA Project Astro)

Lesson Topic: Cosmology Text: Scott Foresman 6th grade science, A46-A49. Activity: Discussed the history of astronomy and the development of the  telescope. Also discussed relationship of observations to  developments of theories of the cosmos. Visual: CD-ROM -A Brief History of Time and Eyewitness Encyclopedia of Space and Universe Video - The Universe (Holiday Video, Ltd.) Poster - Radio Sky (NRAO-Green Bank)

Results

Experiment 1

   For each group, gain scores were calculated, then averaged for each class. There was a sample mortality of 15 students due to their unavailability for completing both the pre- and posttest with the remainder of the class. For the remainder, the independent samples t-test indicated that their was a significant difference between the control and experimental group (t(25)=2.46, p>0.05), with the visually-enhanced group scoring higher on gain scores (Mt= 8.54, SDt= 6.40; Mc=2.93, SDc= 5.44). As there is no reason to assume that the two groups scores were representative of the same population, it is inferred that the visual enhancement had a profound impact on those students' learning of the meteorologic concepts.

   The spread of the data suggests, however, that these results are preliminary and are incomplete in their determination of student conceptual development. In addition, they do not account for consistency in scoring by determination of reliability. Additional factors that came into play in Experiment 1 included: (a) frequent interruption in the unit instruction for school field trips and activities, (b) the relatively high subject mortality rate, and (c) the imminent end of the school year. Upon reflection, the researchers decided to repeat the experiment during the next academic year.

Experiment 2

   For each group, gain scores were calculated, then averaged for each class. There was a sample mortality of 2 students due to their unavailability for completing both the pre- and posttest with the remainder of the class. Interrater reliability between the two scorers was established for the control group at r=0.80 and for the treatment group at r=0.92. The independent samples t-test indicated that their was a significant difference between the control and experimental group (t(53)=6.89, p>0.05), with the visually-enhanced group scoring higher on gain scores (Mt=36.57, SDt= 15.10; Mc=15.26, SDc= 6.79). Given the significant difference between the treatment and control groups there is again no reason to assume that the two groups scores were representative of the same population. It is therefore inferred that the visual enhancement had an impact on those students' learning of the meteorologic concepts. As the experiment was not controlled for by the type of visual (i.e. interactive vs. Passive), the inferences that can be drawn must therefore be considered in a conservative fashion until such time as further research can be completed.

   The results of these experiments provide a glimpse of the impact of visual enhancement in producing deeper learning, even in hands-on oriented science instruction. This suggests that an application of dual-coding theories in science instruction might offer support to teachers in the extension and coordination of the "minds-on" part of the hands-on/minds-on instructional point of view.

Visual Information and Conceptual Growth

   In considering both the associational and referential components of concepts, it is useful to consider the idiosyncratic nature of individual concepts (Komorek & Duit, 1996). The constructions that students generate in a given instructional environment are based on students' explicit or implicit interpretations of particular concepts. These interpretations are based on individual references and associations. If learning is to be an active process, then students need active access to associations (through discussion, dialogue, writing) and references (activities, graphical representations, charts, pictures, videos, etc.). Dual-coding theories predict that opportunities for the interaction of associative and referential cognitive systems results in better retention and basic "learning," reaching students at at least the comprehension level. The extent to which either associations and references affects individual students is specific to the individual, but the opportunity for each should not be denied to students in the classroom. By extension, the language based approach so common in science instruction (i.e. lecture/discussion, reading) can be used to create or access known images to students (Glynn, 1994). Classroom images can provide the substance for language-based descriptions to "hang" on- again a prediction of dual coding theory.

   Hands-on learning and active discussion have become the hallmarks of where science instruction should be heading (e.g. National Science Education Standards). What this study shows is that while these are necessary components of appropriate science instruction, they are a starting point towards deeper, more meaningful connections between and within content. The deliberate connection made by the teachers in this study between verbal, kinesthetic, and visual modes of instruction makes possible a richer, more complex instructional environment that will reach at different levels. Students in low to moderate achieving groups demonstrated the same type of positive effect (if not in magnitude) as a result of having had referential as well as associational instruction.

   This study, however, does not distinguish between the effects of passive visual inputs, such as charts and still pictures, and more active forms, such as videos, CD-ROMs, and laser discs. Furthermore, this study does not take into account the more interactive nature of CD-ROMs and laser discs, nor does it consider small-group vs. large group interactions. It is important to consider these factors in that they can better define the extent to which referential and associational learning interact within a dual-coding framework. Future research will control for passive and active forms of visual input, as well as for the types of interactions present with the use of specific visual sources.

Burr Diagrams

   The use of burr diagrams in this study has proved to be a valid and effective means of determining students' conceptual growth and learning in a simple yet authentic means. It is important to consider burr diagrams as a measurement tool, particularly with those students that have some concept mastery, but have not yet mastered the language normally needed to express such concept mastery. Care must be taken, however, that they are not used in isolation, as students' concepts exist in "semantic and syntactical relations with one another" (Strike & Posner, 1992, p.153). Concepts selected for a group of burr diagrams should reflect some continuity and basic assumption of relationships between concepts. In addition, burr diagrams should be used in at least a pre-test/post-test format, as individual burrs reflect what is important to each individual student (Jonassen, Beissner, & Yacci, 1993). Getting beyond verbal self reports alone as determinants of students' conceptual growth requires interrogating not just what students can "say" regarding concepts, but also what they can "see" regarding the same concepts. Overt connections between associations and references can be captured by burr diagrams in a simple means, albeit localized to the context of a given classroom.

Using burr diagrams as either pretests or post-tests alone does not give a teacher a particular frame of reference for understanding individual student's conceptual growth. Furthermore, the use of burr diagrams can show individual concept growth, but do not provide, at least in isolation, a picture of a student's complete schema for the unit of instruction. They do offer, however, a straightforward means for teachers to relate conceptual development to specific curricular considerations (e.g. Tables 1 & 3).

   In comparing the burr notation idea to the criteria Ruiz-Primo and Shavelson (1996) of whether or not a concept map could be used as an assessment tool, the burr notation meets all of their criteria. The last criterion, a scoring system, was applicable in that a scoring rubric of all related meaningful phrases earned a point was used to compare the pre and post notations of selected meteorological concept words before and after the unit was taught. Thus, the burr notation a simple and effective assessment tool to help in viewing learners' conceptual growth. Burr diagrams can help to alert both learner and teacher to the range of existing connections, how they are changing, and which ones apply in which context (Sutton, 1992). And while burr diagrams do not necessarily capture the complexity needed to determine conceptual development as a concept map might, the trade-off is that burr diagrams can be administered quickly and scored reliably. The teachers employing the burr diagrams in this study have found that they can identify conceptual relationships as well as misconceptions and as such represent a valuable aid to lesson planning. They found them very easy to administer and that students were able to make specific references to instruction.

   As a result of this study, it has become apparent that visual enhancements to instruction, in their various forms, have a noticeable impact on student conceptual growth and learning. As a supplement to mandated hands-on instruction, visual inputs offer another means to create the necessary "minds-on" environment that distinguishes coherent science instruction from a series of isolated activities. Further research will determine the most efficient means of delivering visual inputs for maximum benefit.

   Burr diagrams also offer an additional means of assessing students' concepts with respect to content both before and after instruction, and in an efficient manner. Burr concepts, however, must be selected with care, as their validity as a part of assessment is dependent on their relationship to both the curriculum and the actual instruction. They are teacher- and classroom context-specific. Individual pretest or posttest scores are not particularly useful, and must be considered components of students' conceptual growth.

   This work is on-going. While we are encouraged by the results obtained thus far, we seek to further reduce the experimental noise inherent in this project. In addition, we seek to elaborate the process and generalize the results into additional science content areas. As West Virginia has emerged as a leader in utilizing a coordinated and thematic approach to science instruction (Phyllis Barnhart, personal communication, February 1997), it is important to complement the process by exploring how students' conceptual growth is influenced by different instructional approaches as well as how to determine such growth in a valid and reliable fashion.

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Grateful thanks are extended to Mrs. Sarah Corder, North Elementary School, and Dr. James Rye, West Virginia University, for their gracious assistance in this project.

About the authors...

Eric J. Pyle, Ph.D., is an Assistant Professor of Science Education in the Department of Educational Theory & Practice at West Virginia University, P.O. Box 6122, Morgantown, WV 26506-6122.

Jennifer Akins-Moffatt is an elementary school teacher at North Elementary School in Morgantown, WV.

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